Rosemary

Since ancient times rosemary has been used as a tonic and stimulant. The ancient Greeks used it to strengthen memory function and scholars wore garlands of rosemary during examinations in order to improve their memory and concentration (Blumenthal et al 2000). It is widely used as a food spice and as an antioxidant to preserve foods.

OTHER NAMES:

Compass plant, compass-weed, garden rosemary, old man, polar plant, Rosmarini folium

BOTANICAL NAME/FAMILY:

Rosmarinus officinalis (family Labiatae or Lamiaceae)

CHEMICAL COMPONENTS:

Phenolic acids and diterpenoid bitter substances, including carnosic acid and carnosol (Aruoma et al 1992, Bicchi et al 2000, Wei & Ho 2006), triterpenoid acids, flavonoids, tannins and volatile oils (0.5–2.5%) that consist of cineole, pinene, terpineol, camphor, camphene, borneol and bornyl acetate (Blumenthal et al 2000). Rosemary has also been found to contain high amounts of salicylates (Swain et al 1985).

MAIN ACTIONS:

ANTIOXIDANT

Rosemary has strong antioxidant activity and is widely used to preserve food and cosmetics (Etter 2004). Rosemary leaf extract has been shown to enhance superoxide dismutase activity (Kim et al 1995) and to have an effect stronger than vitamin E in scavenging oxygen radicals (Zhao et al 1989). It is suggested that carnosol and carnosic acid account for over 90% of its antioxidant properties (Aruoma et al 1992, 1996). Carnosic acid has been shown to have a photoprotective action on human dermal fibroblasts exposed to UVA light in vitro (Offord et al 2002) and rosemary extract inhibits oxidative alterations to skin surface lipids, both in vitro and in vivo (Calabrese et al 2000), as well as enhancing cell-mediated immunity in rats under oxidative stress (Babu et al 1999). In a study of 150 patients with bronchitis exposed to essential oils of rosemary, basil, fir and eucalyptus, an antioxidant effect was observed (Siurin 1997).

ANTIBACTERIAL

Rosemary extract demonstrates in vitro antibacterial activity against a variety of bacteria (Del Campo et al 2000, Erdogrul 2002, Ouattara et al 1997) including Helicobacter pylori (Mahady et al 2005) and Staphylococcus aureus (Oluwatuyi et al 2004). Topical application of rosemary essential oil preparations has been found to have antifungal activity (Ouraini et al 2005, Steinmetz et al 1988, Suleimanova et al 1995) and to inhibit the growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus spp. at concentrations between 0.2% and 1% (Tantaoui-Elaraki & Beraoud 1994). Carnosol has been found to have anti-HIV activity (Aruoma et al 1996) and carnosic acid has also been shown to have an inhibitory effect on HIV-1 protease in cell-free assays (Paris et al 1993).

Rosemary extract has some antiviral activity against HSV (Vijayan et al 2004). Powdered rosemary leaves are said to be effective as a natural flea and tick repellent and rosemary essential oil has been found to be ovicidal and repellent towards mosquito (Prajapati et al 2005). ANTI-INFLAMMATORY In vitro studies have found that rosemary extracts inhibited inflammatory-induced peroxynitrite radical and nitrite production (Chan et al 1995, Choi et al 2002) and that carnosol suppresses NO production (Lo et al 2002). Rosmarinic acid has been found to increase the production of PGE2, reduce the production of leukotriene B4 in human polymorphonuclear leucocytes, and inhibit the complement system (al-Sereiti et al 1999).

HEPATOPROTECTIVE

The hepatoprotective properties of rosemary extract are attributed to its antioxidant properties and improving detoxification systems dependent on glutathione Stransferase (Sotelo-Felix et al 2002). Rosemary extract has been shown to reduce thioacetamide-induced cirrhosis (Galisteo et al 2000) and azathioprine-induced toxicity in rats (Amin & Hamza 2005), as well as partially prevent carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in both rats (Sotelo-Felix et al 2002) and mice (Fahim et al 1999, Sotelo-Felix et al 2002).

CHEMOPROTECTION AND ANTIMUTAGENIC EFFECTS

In vivo studies suggest that rosemary extract may reduce the effects of carcinogenic or toxic agents on many cell lines, including rat mammary gland (Amagase et al 1996, Singletary et al 1996), mouse liver and stomach (Singletary & Rokusek 1997), bone marrow (Fahim et al 1999) and skin (Huang et al 1994).

An in vitro study on human bronchial cells found that rosemary extract and its constituents, carnosol and carnosic acid, may have chemoprotective activity through decreasing carcinogen activation via inhibition of the enzyme cytochrome P450 (CYP1A1) and increasing carcinogen detoxification by induction of phase II enzymes (Offord et al 1995).

Carnosol has been found to also restrict the invasive ability of mouse melanoma cells in vitro by reducing MMP-9 expression and activity (Huang et al 2005).

INCREASES OESTROGEN METABOLISM

Feeding female mice a 2% rosemary diet enhanced the liver microsomal metabolism of endogenous oestrogens (Zhu et al 1998), thereby reducing oestrogen levels.

CLINICAL USE:

INCREASED MENTAL CONCENTRATION

One of the main traditional uses of rosemary oil is to increase mental concentration and memory. This is supported by a RCT of 140 subjects that found that rosemary produced a significant enhancement of performance for overall quality of memory and secondary memory factors, with an impairment of speed of memory compared with controls (Moss et al 2003).

Further support comes from an observational study in 40 adults where 3 minutes’ exposure to rosemary essential oil was seen to decrease frontal alpha and beta power, suggesting increased alertness. Subjects felt more relaxed and alert, had lower anxiety scores and were faster, but not more accurate, at completing maths computations (Diego et al 1998). A small, case series of 10 subjects also found that rosemary essential oil had positive effects on mood concentration and memory (Svoboda et al 2002).

ALOPECIA

The traditional use of rosemary to stimulate hair growth is supported by a 7-month, randomised double-blind study of 86 patients that found rubbing oils (thyme, rosemary, lavender and cedarwood) into the scalp helped with alopecia for 44% of patients versus 15% of controls (Hay et al 1998). Although promising, the role of rosemary as a stand-alone substance in achieving these results is unclear.

ANTISPASMODIC

Rosemary is widely acknowledged to be a carminative and is used internally as an antispasmodic for mild cramp-like gastrointestinal and biliary upsets, as well as for tension headache, renal colic and dysmenorrhoea (Blumenthal et al 2000). It is also used to relax bronchial smooth muscle in the treatment of asthma (al-Sereiti et al 1999), but controlled studies are unavailable to determine clinical efficacy.

CHEMOPROTECTIVE AND ADJUNCT IN CANCER THERAPY

Rosemary was used topically to treat cancer in ancient Greece and South America. Although controlled trials are yet to be conducted, it has been suggested that rosemary may delay and inhibit tumour formation in women with breast cancer (Abascal & Yarnell 2001) and that it has potential as a preventive agent or as an adjunct in cancer therapy.

An in vitro study in human breast cancer cells found that rosemary extract increased the intracellular accumulation of commonly used chemotherapeutic agents, including doxorubicin and vinblastine via inhibition of Pglycoprotein, thereby overcoming multidrug resistance in tumour cells (Plouzek et al 1999). Clinical studies are required to determine whether the effect is significant.

OTHER USES:

When applied topically, rosemary oil may stimulate the blood supply and act as supportive therapy for rheumatic conditions and circulatory problems (Blumenthal et al 2000). Topically, rosemary has also been used for wound healing, as an insect repellent, and to treat toothache and eczema. Rosemary extract cream preparations have been shown to protect against sodium-lauryl-sulfate-induced irritant contact dermatitis (Fuchs et al 2005).

In a small, uncontrolled, prospective pilot study of eight women, rosemary in combination with 11 other botanical extracts was found to relieve menopausal symptoms (Smolinski et al 2005).

DOSAGE RANGE:

· Infusion of dried leaf: 2–4 g three times daily.
· Fluid extract (45%): 1–4 mL three times daily.
· Topical preparations containing 6–10% essential oil can be applied directly to skin.
Often a carrier oil, such as almond oil, is used as a vehicle for the essential oil.
· Bath additive: 10 drops essential oil added to bath.

ADVERSE REACTIONS:

Rosemary is generally recognised as safe for human consumption in quantities used as food. Consuming large amounts of rosemary may cause stomach and intestinal irritation, as well as seizures, owing to the high content of highly reactive monoterpene ketones, such as camphor (Burkhard et al 1999). Topically, rosemary is not considered to be highly allergenic; however allergic contact dermatitis from rosemary has been reported (Fernandez et al 1997, Hjorther et al 1997, Inui & Katayama 2005), as has asthma from repeated occupational exposure (Lemiere et al 1996). Rosemary essential oil should be diluted before topical application to minimise irritation.

SIGNIFICANT INTERACTIONS:

Controlled studies are not available; therefore, interactions are based on evidence of activity and are largely theoretical and speculative.

IRON

Rosemary extracts are widely used as an antioxidant to preserve foods; however, the phenolic-rich extracts may reduce the uptake of dietary iron (Samman et al 2001). Separate doses by 2 hours.

ANTICOAGULANTS

Increased bruising and bleeding theoretically possible— use caution.

DRUGS DEPENDENT ON P-GLYCOPROTEIN TRANSPORT

Theoretically, increased drug uptake can occur with those drugs dependent on Pglycoprotein transport. The clinical significance of this finding remains to be tested, although it has been suggested that this activity may be used to enhance the effects of chemotherapeutic agents (Plouzek et al 1999).

PREGNANCY USE:

Rosemary has been shown to have an anti-implantation effect in rats, without interfering with normal fetal development post-implantation (Lemonica et al 1996). It has been used as an abortive in Brazilian folk medicine and is not recommended for use in pregnancy.

PRACTICE POINTS/PATIENT COUNSELLING:

· Rosemary is widely used as a food seasoning and preservative.

· Rosemary extract exhibits antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective and chemoprotective activity in various in vitro and experimental models.

· Rosemary oil is widely used to assist in concentration and memory and to stimulate blood flow.

· Traditionally, it has been used to relieve stomach, gall bladder and menstrual cramps, but its internal use has not yet been significantly investigated in controlled studies.

· Rosemary is generally safe when the leaves are consumed in dietary amounts, although excessive intake may cause stomach irritation and seizures in susceptible people.

SOURCES

REFERENCES:

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